CRIME AND DEV TERMS

Crime- This is committing an action that legally breaks the law. (Committing an offence like murder.)
Deviance- This is engaging in an action that breaks social norms. (Such as picking your nose in public.)
Sanctions- The punishments for breaking social norms sometimes can be the rewards.
Social Control- These are the ways of keeping the behaviour of people is society controlled. They can be formal or informal methods.
Formal Social Control- Behaviour in society is controlled through physical means or physical restrictions in society. They exist to enforce order ranging from the law, the army, prisons, the police, asylums and the army.
Informal Social Control- Behaviour in society is not controlled through physical force but is influenced by the norms and values in society. Conforming to such norms and values leads to rewards.


Terms Regarding Methods
Data and Data Types
Primary Data- First hand data that is collected by the researcher or researchers themselves. (Questionnaires, Interviews and Observations)
Secondary Data- Data from existing sources that was collected by elsewhere and published. (Government, Official Statistics, Documents)
Quantitative Data- When the data collected is in numerical form. This means it can easily be turned in statistics. (Questionnaires, Structured Interviews)
Qualitative Data- Data collected in the form of opinions, meanings and feelings of the participant. It usually requires the researcher to have a sense of empathy and understanding of the participant. (Unstructured Interviews and Personal Documents)
Sample- A smaller group selected on behalf of the population to represent society for the research.
Sampling Frame- The list of people from which a sample for a study is selected.
Variables- Any factor that can change or vary likely to affect the research.


Practical Issues
Practical- The things or ways or means that can affect the research or study published. (Includes time, money, access, difficulty)
Time and Money- How much it will cost to do the research and the time it could take.
Opportunity- Depends on who the research applies who and where samples can be obtained from.
Subject Matter- Depends on the group or subject and what methods are being used to do the study.
Informed Consent- What is needed by the participant before the researcher can use them as part of their sample for the study.
Empathy- Understanding how others are thinking and knowing what they are feeling being able to put ourselves in their shoes.


Ethical Issues
Informed Consent- What is needed by the participant before the researcher can use them as part of their sample for the study.
Confidentiality- Keeping some of the data private and protected so participants can’t be exploited.
Physical Harm- It is important that the research conducted doesn’t harm the researcher or the participants involved physically.
Psychological Harm- The research conducted must keep participants protected from psychological or mental stress.
Withdrawal from study- Means participants can withdraw from the activity or situation if they want.
Debriefing- Participants will be told what the research was about making them comfortable that they participated after the research is complete.
Deception- Refers to when the researcher or participants in the researcher tell lies or behave differently than they normally would in the given situation for the study.


Theoretical Issues
Generalisation- This means that the researcher can make a general statement about society or the social group studied.
Operationalisation- When the data gathered can be turned into something measurable.
Validity- When the data gathered is accurate and truthful.
Reliability- This means if the research was repeated again, the results are likely to be the same or similar.
Representativity- This means that the amount of selected participants can vouch for society as a whole because they represent it for the research.
Positivist- Researchers who favour quantitative methods believing it is more reliable and thus more scientific. (Durkhiem)
Interpretivists- Researchers who favour qualitative methods as they believe this kind of data is more accurate and truthful ignoring social constructs and labels in society. (Aktinson)


Crime and Concepts with Research Methods
Action Theories- These are bottoms up approaches the see individuals have having the free will to make the interactions that can shape society as a whole.
Anomie- The state of individuals or society being characterised by a breakdown or absence of social norms.
Chivalry Thesis- This is a theory that argues that the Criminal Justice System (CJS) is seen as being more lenient towards women. (POLLAK)
Crime- This is behaviour is not only deviant but breaks the law in a country, state or region at a particular time.
Communitarianism- An ideology that emphasizes the connection between the individual and the community.
Comparative Method- This is a research method that compares 2 social groups that are alike apart from one or few factors.
Control Group- This is the group in an experiment that is not exposed to variables under the investigation.
Correlation- This is when 2 or more things have an exact or similar relation.
Critical Criminology- This is the Neo Marxist Approach more up to date than traditional Marxist ideas combining concepts such as subcultural theory. (YOUNG ET AL)
Dependency Culture- This is when people’s lifestyle is to live on benefits provided by the state and not want to change that factor.
Determinism- The idea that humans have no free will and that their thoughts and behaviour is shaped by external factors.
Deviance- An action where there is a breaking of social norms in a particular place or time. (DOWNES AND ROCK)
Deviancy Amplification Spiral- This is a term labelling theorists use referring to when the attempt to control deviance actually makes the situation worse. (STANLEY COHEN)
Disciplinary Power- This is a typical form of control in society based on self surveillance and self discipline to induce conformity.
Discourse- These are a set of rules that have become established as knowledge or ways of thinking and speaking about the world.
Documents- There are 2 types of documents. These are public and personal documents.
Public Documents- These are documents produced by organisations in society such as newspaper articles and school prospectuses.
Personal Documents- These are documents created by individuals such as letters, diaries and autobiographies.
Empathy- This is being able to put someone’s feelings into your point of view having an understanding of how they are feeling.
Environmental Crime Prevention- This is a crime reduction strategy that prevents crime by keeping the environment stable and stopping neighbourhoods from deteriorating. (WILSON AND KELLING)
Ethics- A system of moral princibles used to guide a researcher to produce moral results.
Ethnomethodology- An interpretivist approach rejecting the idea of external social structures and sees society as a social construct. (GARFINKEL)
Experiments- A test that is carried out in a set of controlled conditions.
Experimental Group- The group that is exposed to the variables under investigation.
Falsificationism- This is when scientists set out to find data that would prove an existing concept, hypothesis or theory wrong. (POPPER)
Folk Devil- This is a term that is identified as a threat to society’s values where the media emphasize them as the cause moral panics. (COHEN)
Globalisation- This is the idea that the world is becoming increasingly interconnected and that cultural barriers are disappearing because of technology and the media.
Green Crimes- These are crimes that effect the environment such as dropping litter and causing pollution.
Green Criminology- The study of harms in society and why some harms are seen as more criminal than others. It has a primary focus on the environment.
Hawthorne Effect- This is when the participants of the research know they are being studied so they behave differently affecting the results of data.
Hegemony- This refers to the dominant ideologies and ideological control they have through leadership in society.
Hypothesis- This is an untested theory or explanation expressed as a statement where researchers plan to set out to prove the theory correct.
Informed Consent- This is when a participant or gate leader needs to give a form of approval that allows the researcher to perform the research.
Interpretivism- This is a view that argues statistical data is inaccurate producing invalid data that is related to social constructions and labels. It believes that qualitative methods are better because they produce more accurate and truthful results.
Interviews- This is when the researcher asks a participant a set of questions and writes down their answers.
Labelling- The process of attaching a definition, image or meaning to an individual or group. Labelling theorists argue that this is likely to lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy. (BECKER)
Left Realism- This theory regards crime as a real problem for society particularly for the disadvantaged groups who are more likely to be victims of it. They see material and cultural deprivation as being the cause of crime. (LEA AND YOUNG)
Legitimation- This is when something is justified and made to seem natural.
Longitudinal Study- This is a study of a sample of people over an extended period of time which can be between different eras.
Macro Theory- A structurally approached theory that explains the organisation of society is what creates our behaviour.
Micro Theory- A bottoms up theory that is based on the individuals and how they interpret society.
Modernism- A theory arguing that society has moved into a fairly predictable stage that is changing and developing.
Moral Panic- This is an over exaggeration or over-reaction to a perceived problem in society usually because of media influence. (STANLEY COHEN)
Neutralisation Techniques- These are techniques used by delinquents to justify their deviant acts. These can include claiming they are victims themselves or believing the victim got what they deserved. (STANLEY COHEN)
New Right- This is a conservative political perspective whose supporters believe in self-reliance and individual choice rather than depending on the state.
Observation- This is watching the person, thing or situation and taking notes to obtain valid data.
Objectivity- The absence of bias or preconceived ideas so we can see things as they are.
Official Statistics- This is data collected by the government and published to the public. It’s usually obtained from survey’s and census records.
Operationalization- The process of turning a theory or concept into something that is measurable.
Paradigm- These are a set of shared assumptions scientists conform to in order to achieve scientific knowledge. (THOMAS KUHN)
Phenomenology- This is an interpretivist approach arguing we make sense of the world through shared concepts or categories called typifications. (SCHUTZ)
Pilot Study- This is a prototype study or study taking place before the real one. This is often to spot flaws with the investigative method before using the initial one.
Pluralism- The state or quality of more than one basic substance or principles.
Positivism- The view that argues statistical data is scientific as it produces reliable results.
Postmodernism- This is a theory arguing that society has moved into a late modern stage that is not predictable, fragmented, complex, diverse and ever changing.
Primary Data- This is first hand data that is collected by the researcher themselves.
Punishment- This is an action or restriction that takes place or is invoked onto someone when they are caught breaking norms or committing a crime.
Qualitative Data- This is data collected in the form of opinions, attitudes and feelings often gathered from events and discussions presented in words.
Quantitative Data- This is data that is collected in numerical form which can be turned easily to statistics.
Questionnaires- This is a research instrument where a participant answers a set of questions to produce answers on it that can be used as data. There are 2 main types, open and closed.
Realism- The view that unobservable underlying structures in society can be studied such as class because it poses a real problem.
Reflexivity- This is when modern society no longer guides our actions so we are forced to constantly re-interpret new actions to take depending on the risks and opportunities. (GIDDENS)
Rehabilitation- These are places or institutions where people get re-socialised to fix their problems so they can return to society.
Relativism- The view that knowledge claims are not absolutely true or false but are merely true for those who believe they are.
Reliability- This means that if a research method was repeated, then the data gathered will be similar or the same.
Representative- This is a cross section of the group being studied so findings can be generalised.
Response Rate- This is the amount of people that respond and participate in the research or study as opposed to those who don’t.
Right Realism- This is theories that see crime as a real problem blaming the criminals and having zero tolerance towards criminal acts. (WILSON) (WILSON AND KELLING)
Risk Society- A concept that argues the risks in society are now becoming more man made or manufactured rather than from the causes of nature. (BECK)
Sample- This is a smaller group selected from the target population who will take part in a study.
Sampling Method- This is how samples are chosen for a research or study whether it’s random, stratified, opportunity or quota based.
Sampling Frame- The list of people from which a sample for a study is selected from.
Secondary Data- This is data that can be obtained from existing sources as it has already been published.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy- This is predicting and treating people differently which as a result leads to the prediction ending up true.
Self-Report Studies- This is when individuals are asked to disclose the crimes or anti-social behaviour that they have been responsible for.
Situational Crime Prevention- This is a strategy for reducing opportunities for crime. It aims to manage the immediate environment of specific locations where crime is prone.
Social Control- These are the mechanisms that keep people conform to behavioural norms. There are 2 types of social control, formal and informal.
Social Facts- These are what Durkheim refers to as things that are true and have been accepted as true in society. (DURKHIEM)
Social Policy- This is enforcing the laws that have to be followed in society.
Social Survey- This is any research method that involves systematically collecting information from a group of people that represent or the whole target population.
State Crimes- These are crimes committed by public services or organisations controlled by the government such as the police, the NHS and secret services.
Strain Theory- This is a theory that argues that the stress of life in society is what causes crime. (MERTON)
Structural Theories- These are theories that focus on how society is ordered and organised. They take a top down approach.
Subculture- This is a social group within the mainstream that has its own sets of norms and values. Deviant subcultures tend to rejects society’s norms and values.
Subjectivity- When there is researcher bias or lack of objectivity because an individual’s own point of view influences the research gathered.
Triangulation- This is using multiple methods of research during a study to obtain more accurate and diverse findings.
Typifications- This is a term referring to how we clarify and stabilize how we make sense of the world allowing us to communicate and cooperate. In doing so, this makes the world appear natural.
Underclass- These are people who are at the lowest level of the class structure. They are seen as the class below the working class with a separate deviant subculture and lifestyle.
Validity- This means the data gathered is genuine, truthful and accurate.
Value Freedom- This is the idea that values can and should be kept out of research. It’s favoured by positivists.
Variables- This refers to any changeable event, situation or action that can affect research or studies.
Verificationism- This is a term that refers to when researchers set out to find evidence that proves a hypothesis or theory correct. (POPPER)
Verstehen- This means a complete understanding of how another person thinks making data truthful and accurate.
Victimology- This is the study of victims to crime.
Victim Surveys- This is asking individuals to say what crimes they have been victims of. The best known one is the British Crime Survey carried out annually.
Zermiology- This is the study of harms in society and why some harms end up being defined as crimes where as others do not such as pollution.
Zero Tolerance Policing- This is a crime reduction strategy that aims to enforce punishment onto those who commit crime so they no longer wish to take a risk and offend.


MORE KEY TERMS
Ethnomethodology- An interpretivist method for understanding the social orders of society through social interaction constructing a common sense view of the world. (GARFINKEL)
Phenomenology- This is an interpretivist method that concentrates more on human experiences and objectivity. (HUSSERL)
Criminogenic- This means that the nature of capitalism itself causes crime.
Egalitarianism- This is a theory that argues society can be structured to be completely equal in matters such as opportunities, wealth and rights.
Canteen Culture- This is a way of behaviour within the police force where a large majority of the police force share similar attitudes that may prevent them from reporting or speaking out against immorality and corruption.