SUBCULTURAL THEORY

This adapts to the strain theory arguing that crime is a result of people joining peer groups or subcultures that are likely to engage in deviant activities. These subcultures share their own sets of ideas disconnected from mainstream ideologies. This occurs because the strains are resolved when they join a subculture and gain a sense of identity, status and approval.

Albert Cohen- He found that boys especially W/C largely suffer from it. This is because of cultural deprivation so they enter deviant subcultures where there are people in the same situation that understand their strain. The theory builds on Merton’s strain theory as it argues that Merton’s theory forgets that a large amount of crime is committed in groups especially by the young. Cohen’s studies also argue Merton’s theory largely ignores crimes such as assault and vandalism which can have no economic motive.

Cloward and Ohlin- They take Merton’s ideas as a starting point. They agree that the W/C youths are denied legitimate opportunities to gain “money success”. However, not everyone in this situation turns it innovation such as through utilarian crimes such as theft. They argue that their deviance stems from how they respond to their situations. They identify 3 types of subcultures:
· Criminal Subcultures- Career in crime, gang turf/drug trafficking.
· Conflict Subcultures- Protecting gang turf/having conflict with other subcultures.
· Retreastist Subcultures- Subcultures likely to take drugs to escape the strain of life.

Gordon- However explains that crime is a rational response to the capitalist system and is likely to occur amongst these groups who retaliate being aware of their strains and deprivation.

CRIME PREV, PUN AND VICT

In order to prevent crimes from occurring, there must be penalties in society to those that commit. Crime prevention is a form of social control to prevent members of society from committing and victims from experiencing criminal acts. The ways and methods people are punished for breaking laws are through these 4 main factors:
· Deterrence- This is an attempt to put others off from committing the crime because the criminal is made an example of sometimes publicly.
· Rehabilitation- The criminal is seen has not in the right social state of mind so they need to be sent to institutions or need help so they can get re-socialised and be able to return to society.
· Incapacitation- The criminal’s freedom is taken away or they lose access to privileges in society.
· Retribution- This is when a form of harm or some sort of loss is inflicted for the purpose of justice so that the victim is avenged.
Below, there are 3 commonly looked at theoretical explanations that focus on punishment and crime prevention:

Functionalist View
Functionalists like Durkheim argue that the function of punishment is used to maintain social solidarity and reinforce value consensus through degradation ceremonies such as going to court. These degradation ceremonies are for the form of justice and reminding society the inappropriate way to behave within it so people conform. (DURKHIEM)


Marxist View
Marxists however argue that the function of punishment is however based on economic code which is pretty much for ruling class interests. These punishments include:
· Fines, which w/c will have to pay back to ruling class.
· Prisons, where there is often a denial of wage labour.
· Community Service, these punishments include labour work that has to be done for free until their punishment has been lifted.


Poststructuralist View (FOUCAULT)
This view distinguishes between two forms of punishment. These are sovereign power and disciplinary power: (FOUCAULT)
· Sovereign Power- This was the previous way nobles and the monarchy established their ideological power by inflicting physical punishment on the body such as chopping of limbs.
· Disciplinary Power- This is when the state seeks to govern the mind or soul rather than just the body. This is done through surveillance so criminals are constantly monitored taking away their mental freedom as a way of punishment. For example, Foucault uses the example of the panopticon; this is a prison structure with a control tower that watches over all the prison cells. Thus criminals behave because they know the might be monitored.


CRIME PREVENTION
These are the ways crime can be prevented by society through strategies influenced by sociological studies.

Felson (Situational Crime Prevention) - Ron Clarke describes situational crime prevention as an approach that reduces the opportunity for crimes. In Felson’s studies of a Bus Terminal in New York, it found it was poorly designed in a manner that made it prone to crime. For example, the homeless bathed in the large sinks there. However, when the Terminal was remade it was re-shaped in a way the physical environment would drive crime out. For example, the sinks were now small hand basins preventing the homeless from entering.

Wilson and Kelling (Environmental Crime Prevention) – Found that to prevent crime in neighbourhoods that have deteriorated environmentally, the police need to crack down on any disorder even minor. This is zero tolerance policing and it will function as a way to keep the environment stable from litter, broken windows and constantly monitored for even minor crimes in order to stop areas from ever becoming or being prone to it.

Perry Pre School Project (SCCP) – This intellectual enrichment program showed striking differences with a control group that had not undergone the programme. By the age of 40 the experimental group had fewer arrests for criminal offences whilst more had graduated from high school and were in employment. It was found that every $1 spent on the program, $7 was saved on welfare, prison and other criminal problems.



VICTIM STUDIES

Wolfgang (Positive Victimology) – This approach aims to identify the pattern in victims to crime largely focusing on interpersonal crimes of violence. It also aims to identify victims that have likely contributed to their own victimisation.
In Wolfgang’s study of 588 homicides in Philadelphia, he found that 26% were involved victim precipitation meaning the victim triggered the events leading to the (crime) homicide, for example by being the first to use violence. This was often the case when the victim was male and the perpetrator was female.
However, to criticize this method, it ignores the situations where victims are unaware of their victimisation. (E.g. Environmental Crime)

Tombs and Whyte (Critical Criminology) – This approach views the victim as a social construction where the state have the power to deny the victim the label of victim status. This is common in the case of a man assaulting his wife.
In Tombs and Whyte’s study they found the ideological function of failure to label victims is actually to hide the crimes of the powerful and deny powerless victims any redress. For example when employers violate health and safety regulations they often explain it as the fault of accident prone workers. The same occurs for many rape cases when the victim is denied victim status and blamed for the fate.

ETHNICITY AND CRIME

A lot of crime is seen to be depicted by ethnic minorities such as Blacks and Asians. The media largely emphasizes black subcultures as being deviant especially through musical rap and hip hop. The Ministry of Justice notes that White people are under-represented at all stages of the criminal justice process, for example members of Black communities are 7 times more likely to be stopped and searched by the police force. According to stastistics adapted from the Ministry of justice official statistics 2006/7 to support this:

<!--[if !supportLists]-->· Black people make up 2.8 of the whole population but a massive 11% of the prison population to compare.

<!--[if !supportLists]-->· Asians also make up 4.7% of the whole population but 6 % of the prison population.

Many sociologists criticize such statistics as being to do with the fact that policing strategies are more aimed at targeting these ethnic groups rather than a generalisation of all of society. This has led many to believe the criminal justice system is much harsher to ethnic minorities in terms of sentencing and arresting.

BRITISH CRIME SURVEY (VICTIM SURVEYS)

Reveal a great deal of crime is intra ethnic, which means it mostly takes place amongst those of the same ethnic groups. The BCS reveals 90% of victims that were white had at least 1 person who was a white offender. This shows that blacks are over represented by victims as the criminal offenders in society.

However, the BCS can be criticized for only telling us about the ethnicity of a small proportion of offenders which may not be representative.

GRAHAM AND BOWLING (SELF REPORT STUDIES)

In Graham and Bowling’s 2500 sample of self-report studies of crime and deviance, they found in the rates of offending blacks (43%) and whites (44%) had similar rates. Indians (30%), Pakistani’s (28%) and Bangladeshi’s (13%) had much lower rates.

MCPHERSON REPORT (INSTITUTIONAL RACISM)

This is a typical example of institutional racism where the Metropolitan Police failed to investigate the racist murder of the black teenager Stephen Lawrence. It came to a consensus that the officers held a canteen culture that is racist towards ethnic minorities holding negative stereotypes of them. This is why the case wasn’t investigated properly and the convicts clearly got away with the crime for years. An officer at the scene didn’t get medical help on time and Stephen Lawrence’s close friend at the scene was constantly harassed by the police believed to be a prime suspect. (This is proof to support the over exaggerated claims that ethnics are mainly responsible for crimes as it shows that they are actually discriminated against.)

GILROY (MYTH OF BLACK CRIMINALITY)

Gilroy found that in reality these ethnic minority groups are no more criminal than any other. However, as a result of the media portraying them as deviants, the criminal justice system and police judge them as the perpetrators. For example, police will more likely perform stop and searches on ethnic minorities and courts will give them much harsh punishments. (Gilroy also believes ethnic minority crime can be seen as a form of political resistance against this oppression.)

HALL ET AL (POLICING THE CRISIS)

Similar to Gilroy’s argument, Hal et al’s studies argue that a moral panic was created in society which was “black muggers” during the 1970’s in a period where capitalism was challenged and people went on strikes. This new name for the old crime street robbery became associated with the media, police and the youth. Marxists would argue that the myth of the black mugger was an illusion to disguise the true problems in society.

GLOBALISATION AND CRIME

The globalisation process refers to the interconnectedness of societies and how cultural barriers are broken due to the influence of the media and technology. Thus the world is able to be socialised about major crimes that threaten societies. Below are some examples of key terms that are important to remember:

Cyber Crimes- Crimes that occur through technology such as identity theft or child pornography.

Green Criminology- This is the study of crimes against the environment.

Green Crimes- This is crimes that are against the environment. (Pollution)

State Crimes- These are illegal or deviant acts perpetrated by government controlled institutions or state agencies.

Zermiology- This is the study of harms to society and why some harms are socially constructed as crimes where as others are not.

CASTELLS (GLOBAL CRIMINAL ECONOMY)

Manual Castells argues that there is now a global criminal economy worth over 1 trillion per annum and this takes a number of forms from arms trafficking, green crimes, drugs trade, cybercrimes, smuggling of legal goods to international terrorism.

The global criminal economy is seen to have a supply and demand side. The supply side is what provides the resources such as drugs, sex workers and other goods demanded in the West. The demand side is the organisations, people or criminals that need to use the resources that are supplied for profitable means.

IAN TAYLOR (GLOBALISED CAPITALISM)

This left realist approach found that free rain market forces exploit third world countries by using transnational organisations. This de-regulation leads to a lack of government control over the economics. Marketization also increasingly encourages people to see themselves as consumers undermining social cohesion. Thus capitalism being criminogenic creates higher rates of crime worldwide because it has globalised. Marxists would argue that MEDC’s are seen to benefit from capitalism where LEDC’s are exploited.

WHITE (TRANSGRESSIVE CRIMINLOGY)

In his studies of green criminology, he argues that the reason why harming the environment is justified by developed or developing societies is because of the dominant ideology and consensus that humans have the right to dominate nature. This is why transnational companies and nation states can justify the harm to the environment. Thus this type of crime isn’t overlooked due to capitalist means exploiting humans and the environment more focused on economic growth and profit. 2 views are:

· Anthropocentric View- Which believes humans have the rights to dominate nature for economic growth which is put before the needs of the environment.

· Ecocentric View- Which believes humans and the environment are interdependent. This view is taken by most green criminologists that agree that harm is what harms the environment.

Carrabine et al- Distinguishes between 2 types of Green Crime which are primary and secondary green crimes:

· Primary Green Crime- This is crimes that involve the destruction of the environment and earth’s resources which destabilizes the ecosystem.

· Secondary Green Crime- This is crimes that occur because of the destruction to the environment where groups argue against these the state.

(Schwendinger- We should define crime as the breaking of human rights rather than the breaking of legal rules. For example, states that practice imperialism, racism or sexism will have higher crime rates as the state promotes crime based on themes or factors.

Argues that by doing this, we recognise how crime is a political social construction such as the Nazi laws on persecution against the Jews.

COHEN (NEUTRALISATION THEORY)

Stan Cohen argues that crimes committed by different states are justifying human rights violations. This is because they aim to impose a different constriction of the event to society than what may have appeared to be the case. This is achieved by:

· Denying the victims human rights. (But they are terrorists.)

· Deny the injuries to the victims. (We are the real victims.)

· Denying the responsibility of the crime (We were just obeying orders.)

· Condemning the condemned (They were threatening us.)

· Appealing to a higher loyalty (Protecting the World.)

KELMAN AND HAMILTON (OBEDIENCE)

Kelman and Hamilton identify 3 features that allow state crimes to be permitted and justifiable to wider society. These are:

· Authorisation- When the acts are ordered or approved from those in authority so normal moral principles are replaced by the duty to obey.

· Routinisation- This is when state crimes are turned into a repetitive routine which individuals perform on a scheduled basis so they end up being desensitized and the act becomes detached to them.

· Dehumanisation- These are when the enemy are portrayed as subhuman or animals leading perceptions to justify crime against them. (In case of Hutu and Tutsis conflict, Rwandan Genocide)

ENVIRONMENTAL THEORY

This theory brings criminology up to date because the traditional theories of crime and deviance such as functionalism, Marxism, strain theory, labelling and subcultural theories are seen to be out of date.

Shaw and McKay (Concentric Zone Model)

In Shaw and McKay’s study of the Burgess model also referred to as the concentric zone model, they found that amongst the poorest zones crime becomes culturally acceptable and this lifestyle would be passed one from generation to generation. The Burgess model reveals that there is social disorganisation in society due to zones being diverse in wealth and conformity to mainstream norms and values. (The transition zone is seen as where crime rates are most likely to be at their highest because there is social disorganization.)

(Morris’s study of Croydon- criticizes Shaw and McKay’s studies as they believed the circles didn’t fit British society and was more complex than what the model portrayed. It also argued that if any areas should be classified as socially disorganised they should be middle class residential areas as these people did not interact a great deal.)

Hobbs and Lister (Growth of Pubs/Clubs)

In their studies found that a huge growth in pubs/clubs gathered huge numbers of young people to come in search of pleasure. These pubs/clubs spread over cities and were largely focused in the CBD. Their studies reveal that ¾ of all violent incidents occur in urban areas between 9pm to 3am on the weekend. This is why Bouncers are like the alternate privatised police officers keeping social control for them.

Baldwin and Bottoms (Sheffield Estates)

In their study of 2 estates in Sheffield which were only separated by a dual carriage way, they found a major difference in crime rates. These were the Gardenia and Stonewall estates. The Gardenia Estate had a 300% higher number of offenders and 350% higher level of crime. The estate was seen to have tipped.

Wilson and Kelling (Broken Windows)

In their article showing some of the right realist views to crime and deviance, they argue that it is essential to maintain the orderly character of neighbourhoods in society to prevent crime. Any sign of deterioration such as graffiti, vandalism, litter or broken windows in buildings can indicate the location is prone to crime. Thus crime takes place as criminals are attracted to the location seeing it as a natural environment to perform deviant/criminal acts.

SUICIDE

The study of suicide is a classic area in Sociology that has led to many different types of approaches to studying it. There are different methodological perspectives or theories of methods and approaches to the study of suicide in very different ways.

POSITIVISTS (DURKHEIM)

See official statistics as being social facts. In Durkheim’s thought experiment (comparative method), he compared the rate of suicides between Catholics and Protestants. He found that Catholics were less likely to commit suicide do to the rate of social integration that is intertwined with the religion such as being in bigger families.

INTERPRETIVISTS (DOUGLAS)

They are interested in the meanings behind the suicide for the deceased. Douglas argues that suicide rates are not social facts but are socially constructed by the participants. (An example could be by the Coroner or friends and family.) This means statistics are disregarded because it allows labels to be attached to the person who is supposed to have committed the suicide due to social factors such as depression, mental illness or stress. (Another factor is that different countries regard suicide as different)

ETHNOMETHODOLOGISTS/PHENOMENOLOGISTS (AKTINSON)

They take a more hard-core interpretivist approach that believes all knowledge and meanings are socially constructed on an individual basis so we can never have a true understanding of another person’s meaning. This is because we are always interpreting it with our own subjective context so we can never know the true rate of suicide because we don’t know the meaning the dead gave to their deaths.

Atkinson however criticizes common sense theorists on how they categories incidents that are socially constructed as suicide.

· Ethnomethodology- An interpretivist method for understanding the social orders of society through social interaction constructing a common sense view of the world. (GARFINKEL)

· Phenomenology- This is an interpretivist method that concentrates more on human experiences and objectivity. (HUSSERL)

REALISTS (TAYLOR)

Realists tend to look for the real pattern and causes for suicide rates. They aim to discover the underlying structures and causes that can explain observable events such as suicide. This is because many who attempt suicide are not sure their actions will kill them. The way to define an event as a suicide would be to look at the successful and unsuccessful attempts to commit this offence. Taylor distinguishes between 4 main types of suicide:

· Submissive Suicides- When the person is certain about themselves. (e.g. no future)

· Thanatation Suicides- When person is uncertain about themselves and what others think so attempt a risk taking death like Russian roulette.

· Sacrifice Suicides- When they are certain about others and know they have to kill themselves. This could involve knowing business failing or knowing they are hated by all.

· Appeal Suicides- When a person is uncertain about others having doubts about their importance to them. The suicide tries to resolve uncertainty and is an attempt to form communication.

Taylor’s views don’t apply to wider society as his studies were a small sample of case studies. Unlike Durkheim, this makes it lack representativity; however the theory is original and with merit shows patterns of observed suicide. Q1) What did Positivist Durkhiem about crime?

CRIME AND DEV TERMS

Crime- This is committing an action that legally breaks the law. (Committing an offence like murder.)
Deviance- This is engaging in an action that breaks social norms. (Such as picking your nose in public.)
Sanctions- The punishments for breaking social norms sometimes can be the rewards.
Social Control- These are the ways of keeping the behaviour of people is society controlled. They can be formal or informal methods.
Formal Social Control- Behaviour in society is controlled through physical means or physical restrictions in society. They exist to enforce order ranging from the law, the army, prisons, the police, asylums and the army.
Informal Social Control- Behaviour in society is not controlled through physical force but is influenced by the norms and values in society. Conforming to such norms and values leads to rewards.


Terms Regarding Methods
Data and Data Types
Primary Data- First hand data that is collected by the researcher or researchers themselves. (Questionnaires, Interviews and Observations)
Secondary Data- Data from existing sources that was collected by elsewhere and published. (Government, Official Statistics, Documents)
Quantitative Data- When the data collected is in numerical form. This means it can easily be turned in statistics. (Questionnaires, Structured Interviews)
Qualitative Data- Data collected in the form of opinions, meanings and feelings of the participant. It usually requires the researcher to have a sense of empathy and understanding of the participant. (Unstructured Interviews and Personal Documents)
Sample- A smaller group selected on behalf of the population to represent society for the research.
Sampling Frame- The list of people from which a sample for a study is selected.
Variables- Any factor that can change or vary likely to affect the research.


Practical Issues
Practical- The things or ways or means that can affect the research or study published. (Includes time, money, access, difficulty)
Time and Money- How much it will cost to do the research and the time it could take.
Opportunity- Depends on who the research applies who and where samples can be obtained from.
Subject Matter- Depends on the group or subject and what methods are being used to do the study.
Informed Consent- What is needed by the participant before the researcher can use them as part of their sample for the study.
Empathy- Understanding how others are thinking and knowing what they are feeling being able to put ourselves in their shoes.


Ethical Issues
Informed Consent- What is needed by the participant before the researcher can use them as part of their sample for the study.
Confidentiality- Keeping some of the data private and protected so participants can’t be exploited.
Physical Harm- It is important that the research conducted doesn’t harm the researcher or the participants involved physically.
Psychological Harm- The research conducted must keep participants protected from psychological or mental stress.
Withdrawal from study- Means participants can withdraw from the activity or situation if they want.
Debriefing- Participants will be told what the research was about making them comfortable that they participated after the research is complete.
Deception- Refers to when the researcher or participants in the researcher tell lies or behave differently than they normally would in the given situation for the study.


Theoretical Issues
Generalisation- This means that the researcher can make a general statement about society or the social group studied.
Operationalisation- When the data gathered can be turned into something measurable.
Validity- When the data gathered is accurate and truthful.
Reliability- This means if the research was repeated again, the results are likely to be the same or similar.
Representativity- This means that the amount of selected participants can vouch for society as a whole because they represent it for the research.
Positivist- Researchers who favour quantitative methods believing it is more reliable and thus more scientific. (Durkhiem)
Interpretivists- Researchers who favour qualitative methods as they believe this kind of data is more accurate and truthful ignoring social constructs and labels in society. (Aktinson)


Crime and Concepts with Research Methods
Action Theories- These are bottoms up approaches the see individuals have having the free will to make the interactions that can shape society as a whole.
Anomie- The state of individuals or society being characterised by a breakdown or absence of social norms.
Chivalry Thesis- This is a theory that argues that the Criminal Justice System (CJS) is seen as being more lenient towards women. (POLLAK)
Crime- This is behaviour is not only deviant but breaks the law in a country, state or region at a particular time.
Communitarianism- An ideology that emphasizes the connection between the individual and the community.
Comparative Method- This is a research method that compares 2 social groups that are alike apart from one or few factors.
Control Group- This is the group in an experiment that is not exposed to variables under the investigation.
Correlation- This is when 2 or more things have an exact or similar relation.
Critical Criminology- This is the Neo Marxist Approach more up to date than traditional Marxist ideas combining concepts such as subcultural theory. (YOUNG ET AL)
Dependency Culture- This is when people’s lifestyle is to live on benefits provided by the state and not want to change that factor.
Determinism- The idea that humans have no free will and that their thoughts and behaviour is shaped by external factors.
Deviance- An action where there is a breaking of social norms in a particular place or time. (DOWNES AND ROCK)
Deviancy Amplification Spiral- This is a term labelling theorists use referring to when the attempt to control deviance actually makes the situation worse. (STANLEY COHEN)
Disciplinary Power- This is a typical form of control in society based on self surveillance and self discipline to induce conformity.
Discourse- These are a set of rules that have become established as knowledge or ways of thinking and speaking about the world.
Documents- There are 2 types of documents. These are public and personal documents.
Public Documents- These are documents produced by organisations in society such as newspaper articles and school prospectuses.
Personal Documents- These are documents created by individuals such as letters, diaries and autobiographies.
Empathy- This is being able to put someone’s feelings into your point of view having an understanding of how they are feeling.
Environmental Crime Prevention- This is a crime reduction strategy that prevents crime by keeping the environment stable and stopping neighbourhoods from deteriorating. (WILSON AND KELLING)
Ethics- A system of moral princibles used to guide a researcher to produce moral results.
Ethnomethodology- An interpretivist approach rejecting the idea of external social structures and sees society as a social construct. (GARFINKEL)
Experiments- A test that is carried out in a set of controlled conditions.
Experimental Group- The group that is exposed to the variables under investigation.
Falsificationism- This is when scientists set out to find data that would prove an existing concept, hypothesis or theory wrong. (POPPER)
Folk Devil- This is a term that is identified as a threat to society’s values where the media emphasize them as the cause moral panics. (COHEN)
Globalisation- This is the idea that the world is becoming increasingly interconnected and that cultural barriers are disappearing because of technology and the media.
Green Crimes- These are crimes that effect the environment such as dropping litter and causing pollution.
Green Criminology- The study of harms in society and why some harms are seen as more criminal than others. It has a primary focus on the environment.
Hawthorne Effect- This is when the participants of the research know they are being studied so they behave differently affecting the results of data.
Hegemony- This refers to the dominant ideologies and ideological control they have through leadership in society.
Hypothesis- This is an untested theory or explanation expressed as a statement where researchers plan to set out to prove the theory correct.
Informed Consent- This is when a participant or gate leader needs to give a form of approval that allows the researcher to perform the research.
Interpretivism- This is a view that argues statistical data is inaccurate producing invalid data that is related to social constructions and labels. It believes that qualitative methods are better because they produce more accurate and truthful results.
Interviews- This is when the researcher asks a participant a set of questions and writes down their answers.
Labelling- The process of attaching a definition, image or meaning to an individual or group. Labelling theorists argue that this is likely to lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy. (BECKER)
Left Realism- This theory regards crime as a real problem for society particularly for the disadvantaged groups who are more likely to be victims of it. They see material and cultural deprivation as being the cause of crime. (LEA AND YOUNG)
Legitimation- This is when something is justified and made to seem natural.
Longitudinal Study- This is a study of a sample of people over an extended period of time which can be between different eras.
Macro Theory- A structurally approached theory that explains the organisation of society is what creates our behaviour.
Micro Theory- A bottoms up theory that is based on the individuals and how they interpret society.
Modernism- A theory arguing that society has moved into a fairly predictable stage that is changing and developing.
Moral Panic- This is an over exaggeration or over-reaction to a perceived problem in society usually because of media influence. (STANLEY COHEN)
Neutralisation Techniques- These are techniques used by delinquents to justify their deviant acts. These can include claiming they are victims themselves or believing the victim got what they deserved. (STANLEY COHEN)
New Right- This is a conservative political perspective whose supporters believe in self-reliance and individual choice rather than depending on the state.
Observation- This is watching the person, thing or situation and taking notes to obtain valid data.
Objectivity- The absence of bias or preconceived ideas so we can see things as they are.
Official Statistics- This is data collected by the government and published to the public. It’s usually obtained from survey’s and census records.
Operationalization- The process of turning a theory or concept into something that is measurable.
Paradigm- These are a set of shared assumptions scientists conform to in order to achieve scientific knowledge. (THOMAS KUHN)
Phenomenology- This is an interpretivist approach arguing we make sense of the world through shared concepts or categories called typifications. (SCHUTZ)
Pilot Study- This is a prototype study or study taking place before the real one. This is often to spot flaws with the investigative method before using the initial one.
Pluralism- The state or quality of more than one basic substance or principles.
Positivism- The view that argues statistical data is scientific as it produces reliable results.
Postmodernism- This is a theory arguing that society has moved into a late modern stage that is not predictable, fragmented, complex, diverse and ever changing.
Primary Data- This is first hand data that is collected by the researcher themselves.
Punishment- This is an action or restriction that takes place or is invoked onto someone when they are caught breaking norms or committing a crime.
Qualitative Data- This is data collected in the form of opinions, attitudes and feelings often gathered from events and discussions presented in words.
Quantitative Data- This is data that is collected in numerical form which can be turned easily to statistics.
Questionnaires- This is a research instrument where a participant answers a set of questions to produce answers on it that can be used as data. There are 2 main types, open and closed.
Realism- The view that unobservable underlying structures in society can be studied such as class because it poses a real problem.
Reflexivity- This is when modern society no longer guides our actions so we are forced to constantly re-interpret new actions to take depending on the risks and opportunities. (GIDDENS)
Rehabilitation- These are places or institutions where people get re-socialised to fix their problems so they can return to society.
Relativism- The view that knowledge claims are not absolutely true or false but are merely true for those who believe they are.
Reliability- This means that if a research method was repeated, then the data gathered will be similar or the same.
Representative- This is a cross section of the group being studied so findings can be generalised.
Response Rate- This is the amount of people that respond and participate in the research or study as opposed to those who don’t.
Right Realism- This is theories that see crime as a real problem blaming the criminals and having zero tolerance towards criminal acts. (WILSON) (WILSON AND KELLING)
Risk Society- A concept that argues the risks in society are now becoming more man made or manufactured rather than from the causes of nature. (BECK)
Sample- This is a smaller group selected from the target population who will take part in a study.
Sampling Method- This is how samples are chosen for a research or study whether it’s random, stratified, opportunity or quota based.
Sampling Frame- The list of people from which a sample for a study is selected from.
Secondary Data- This is data that can be obtained from existing sources as it has already been published.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy- This is predicting and treating people differently which as a result leads to the prediction ending up true.
Self-Report Studies- This is when individuals are asked to disclose the crimes or anti-social behaviour that they have been responsible for.
Situational Crime Prevention- This is a strategy for reducing opportunities for crime. It aims to manage the immediate environment of specific locations where crime is prone.
Social Control- These are the mechanisms that keep people conform to behavioural norms. There are 2 types of social control, formal and informal.
Social Facts- These are what Durkheim refers to as things that are true and have been accepted as true in society. (DURKHIEM)
Social Policy- This is enforcing the laws that have to be followed in society.
Social Survey- This is any research method that involves systematically collecting information from a group of people that represent or the whole target population.
State Crimes- These are crimes committed by public services or organisations controlled by the government such as the police, the NHS and secret services.
Strain Theory- This is a theory that argues that the stress of life in society is what causes crime. (MERTON)
Structural Theories- These are theories that focus on how society is ordered and organised. They take a top down approach.
Subculture- This is a social group within the mainstream that has its own sets of norms and values. Deviant subcultures tend to rejects society’s norms and values.
Subjectivity- When there is researcher bias or lack of objectivity because an individual’s own point of view influences the research gathered.
Triangulation- This is using multiple methods of research during a study to obtain more accurate and diverse findings.
Typifications- This is a term referring to how we clarify and stabilize how we make sense of the world allowing us to communicate and cooperate. In doing so, this makes the world appear natural.
Underclass- These are people who are at the lowest level of the class structure. They are seen as the class below the working class with a separate deviant subculture and lifestyle.
Validity- This means the data gathered is genuine, truthful and accurate.
Value Freedom- This is the idea that values can and should be kept out of research. It’s favoured by positivists.
Variables- This refers to any changeable event, situation or action that can affect research or studies.
Verificationism- This is a term that refers to when researchers set out to find evidence that proves a hypothesis or theory correct. (POPPER)
Verstehen- This means a complete understanding of how another person thinks making data truthful and accurate.
Victimology- This is the study of victims to crime.
Victim Surveys- This is asking individuals to say what crimes they have been victims of. The best known one is the British Crime Survey carried out annually.
Zermiology- This is the study of harms in society and why some harms end up being defined as crimes where as others do not such as pollution.
Zero Tolerance Policing- This is a crime reduction strategy that aims to enforce punishment onto those who commit crime so they no longer wish to take a risk and offend.


MORE KEY TERMS
Ethnomethodology- An interpretivist method for understanding the social orders of society through social interaction constructing a common sense view of the world. (GARFINKEL)
Phenomenology- This is an interpretivist method that concentrates more on human experiences and objectivity. (HUSSERL)
Criminogenic- This means that the nature of capitalism itself causes crime.
Egalitarianism- This is a theory that argues society can be structured to be completely equal in matters such as opportunities, wealth and rights.
Canteen Culture- This is a way of behaviour within the police force where a large majority of the police force share similar attitudes that may prevent them from reporting or speaking out against immorality and corruption.

GENDER AND CRIME

The crime rate difference between males and females is a large one. Men are seen as the ones who are more likely to commit crime according to official statistics. 4/5 convicted offenders in England and Wales are male. Also by the age of 30, 9% of females had a criminal conviction as opposed to 32% of males. Different theorists have emphasized different views towards this. In terms of crime rates, due to the media and official statistics of crime makes wider society believe:

· Men are more likely to commit crimes such as violence and murder.

· Women are more likely to commit crimes such as shoplifting.

Chivalry Thesis (Pollak)

This is a theory that argues that the criminal justice system (CJS) treats women more leniently than men when they commit crime. Therefore women are more likely to get let off especially if crimes are minor and their crimes are often unreported. A large amount of the police officers and judges are men who are seen as being “chivalrous” to women. This is because men’s traditional lifestyles have been to protect women and guide them as their leaders. (Pollak)

Farrington and Buckle- They explain how more men commit crimes such as shoplifting even though many official statics have regarded women as the main perpetrators. From their research their findings found 50% of males and females commit shoplifting. However, from their observations looking at footage from security cameras, it is revealed that they are 2x more likely.

Functionalist Sex Role

This theory argues that young boys are not receiving adequate socialisation from the nuclear family. Thus, they join peer group cultures to gain male influence. The reason why boys are more delinquent than girls is that performing deviant acts reinforces status and identity within these groups. Male adults don’t know how to socialise their children and this can lead to improper socialisation because boys would rather be taught from their dads than their mums. (Cohen)

Talcott Parsons- Argues that males and females have different roles because of biological factors. Males are supposed to be the breadwinner whilst females are supposed to provide adequate socialisation. Some young boys don’t get needs from mothers so they are likely to join deviant subcultures.

Walklate- However disregards Parsons biological idea of the wife being best to suit the socialisation of children. The sociologist argues that women aren’t always necessarily best fit to socialise young boys as this is based on the individual.

CLASS AND RATIONALISATION (CARLEN)

This theory explains that women are more rationale than men and tend to think more about what they have to lose so less crime is committed by them. Middle class women tend to have more to lose so they are more likely not to commit crime. (CARLEN)

LIBERATION THESIS (FRIEDA ALDER)

This theory argues that society is becoming more equal and that women are also committing more crimes such as drugs and violence. This is because if patriarchal society exercises control over women, then as it becomes less patriarchal it would seem logical to assume that women’s crime rates will become similar to men’s.

Alder- Alder argues that the changes in the structure of society as women have become more liberated causes more crime caused by women. As evidence to support her argument, the rating of criminal offences for women has gone up since 1950’s to 1990’s from 1 in 7 to 1 in 6.

PATRIARCHAL CONTROL (HIEDENSON)

This theory argues that women are socially controlled more than men because society is patriarchal. Because of their conformist behaviour, they commit less crime than men because patriarchal society imposes greater control over them. This reduces their opportunities to offend. Heidenson divides this control into 3 main categories:

· Control at Home- Women’s classic domestic role constantly doing housework and childcare restricts their time and movement. This confinement prevents them from committing crime. Dobash and Dobash would argue many violent attacks are to do with men’s dissatisfaction of women’s domestic duties. (Domestic Violence)

· Control in Public- Women tend to be more controlled in public because of the threat of male violence against them. Islington’s Crime survey suggests that 54% of women avoid going out after dark for fear of being victims of crime.

· Control at Work- There is still a glass ceiling in many workplaces. Women tend to be led by male bosses (managers/supervisors).

MASCULINITY AND CRIME (MESSERSCMIDT)

This theory argues that masculinity is an accomplishment. This social construction of the male gender has men constantly working and competing to present it to others. Crime and deviance can be seen as resources to present their masculinity such as through violence.

However, these views have often been criticized as it doesn’t explain why some men don’t use crime to accomplish masculinity.

Hegemonic Masculinity- This refers to the ruling ideologies of how masculinity should be presented. Traits that often fit into this category are physical strength, money and tribal like behaviour.

BODY CAPITAL AND HYPER REALITY (WINLOW)

In Winlow’s studies, he found that men use their body capital to improve their appearance as strong and tough which is hegemonically seen as masculine. This is achieved by body building and natural large size. This discourages competitors from challenging them because of their masculine reputation.

His studies of bouncers reveal that their body capital is so unnatural it creates a hyper reality of masculine power. This could be why other men fear to challenge their authority.